TOK situations about evidence
What is offered in support of a claim. Evidence is not the same as proof: it raises or lowers how likely a claim is, and its force depends on how it was gathered, what it was gathered for, and what else it is consistent with. Asking what would count as evidence against a claim is usually more revealing than listing evidence for it.
What evidence means in TOK, and the IA prompts it is central to
- Africa
When a government doubted the virus
South Africa's government under Mbeki gave platform to AIDS-dissident scientists and delayed antiretroviral rollout, and later epidemiological studies…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Power
- Responsibility
- Southeast Asia
The city the lasers found under the jungle
Airborne laser scanning over Angkor stripped away the canopy digitally and revealed a vast low-density urban sprawl around the temples, overturning estimates…
Enduring · History
- Evidence
- Interpretation
- Southeast Asia
The divers evolution equipped
The Bajau of Southeast Asia free-dive to remarkable depths, and genetic studies found enlarged spleens consistent with selection for diving over generations.…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Culture
- India
Counting Bhopal's victims
Official, judicial and activist counts of deaths from the 1984 gas leak differ by tens of thousands, diverging on time windows, causation standards and whose…
Enduring · The human sciences · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Power
- Responsibility
- India
Demonetisation and the missing counterfactual
India's 2016 note ban was declared a success and a failure by credentialled economists looking at the same aftermath. With no parallel India that kept its…
Enduring · The human sciences
- Evidence
- Power
- Values
- South Asia
The third umpire and the ball that never arrived
A batter is given not out. The fielding side reviews. On the big screen, a tracking system reconstructs the ball's flight, and then continues it past the point…
Enduring · The natural sciences · Mathematics
- Evidence
- Interpretation
- Certainty
- Southeast Asia
Counting the drug war
Government figures and independent tallies of deaths in the Philippine drug war differed by tens of thousands, depending on which killings were classified as…
Enduring · The human sciences
- Evidence
- Power
- India
The night the exit polls were wrong
Ahead of India's 2024 general election results, exit polls converged on a sweeping majority for the incumbent alliance; the counted votes delivered something…
Enduring · The human sciences
- Evidence
- Certainty
- Southeast Asia
The small skeleton that split palaeoanthropology
The metre-tall skeleton found on Flores in 2003 was declared a new human species by some researchers and a diseased modern human by others, with both camps…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Interpretation
- Latin America
Bones as witnesses
Forensic teams exhuming mass graves in Guatemala and Argentina matched skeletal evidence to survivor accounts, converting disputed atrocities into documented…
Enduring · History · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Responsibility
- South Asia
Does microcredit work? Ask which study
Microcredit spread from Bangladesh on powerful anecdotes of transformation; later randomised trials found modest average effects and few of the promised…
Enduring · The human sciences
- Evidence
- Certainty
- Africa
The ruins colonialism refused to attribute
Colonial administrations in Rhodesia promoted foreign builders, Phoenicians, Arabs, anyone but Africans, for Great Zimbabwe, and at times pressured…
Enduring · History
- Evidence
- Perspective
- Power
- India
The Green Revolution's two ledgers
High-yield wheat varieties helped end famine-scale scarcity in India, and decades later the same programme is cited for depleted aquifers, soil damage and…
Enduring · The human sciences · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Values
- Africa
Historians without paper
West African griots have carried genealogies, epics and political history across centuries through trained recitation, with lineages of transmitters…
Enduring · History
- Evidence
- Culture
- East Asia
Grams of asteroid, years of travel
Japan's Hayabusa2 spent years travelling to asteroid Ryugu to bring back a few grams of material, though telescopes and spectra had already characterised it…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Justification
- The Middle East and North Africa
Testing vision instead of theorising it
Ibn al-Haytham's eleventh-century optics rejected the reigning theory that eyes emit rays, arguing from designed experiments with dark chambers and controlled…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Justification
- Latin America
The satellite data that cost a director his job
In 2019 Brazil's space agency published satellite figures showing sharply rising Amazon deforestation; the president called the numbers lies and the agency's…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Power
- Objectivity
- India
Jantar Mantar: architecture as instrument
In the 1720s Jai Singh II built enormous masonry instruments in Jaipur and Delhi, sundials and sextants the size of buildings, to sharpen astronomical tables.…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Explanation
- Oceania
The raft, the genes, and Pacific origins
Heyerdahl's 1947 Kon-Tiki voyage showed a raft could drift from South America into Polynesia, and the spectacle carried his settlement theory for decades.…
Enduring · History · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Justification
- East Asia
Why did the treasure fleets stop?
Zheng He's fifteenth-century fleets dwarfed anything Europe would float for centuries, then the voyages ceased and records were neglected or destroyed.…
Enduring · History
- Evidence
- Explanation
- India
Two forecasts of the same monsoon
Farmers across India read bird behaviour, flowering patterns and wind for the monsoon's arrival, while the meteorological department runs ensemble models, and…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Culture
- Latin America
Drawings meant for no one on the ground
The Nazca lines have been read as astronomical calendars, ritual pathways, water markers and stranger things, with each era's favourite explanation tracking…
Enduring · History · The arts
- Evidence
- Interpretation
- Global
When oral tradition entered the courtroom
In the Delgamuukw case, Canada's Supreme Court held that Indigenous oral histories must be admitted as evidence of land rights on their own terms rather than…
Enduring · History
- Evidence
- Culture
- South Asia
A nationwide experiment with no pilot
In 2021 Sri Lanka banned synthetic fertiliser imports almost overnight, aiming for fully organic agriculture; harvests collapsed and the decision was reversed…
Enduring · The human sciences · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Responsibility
- India
Who designed the Taj Mahal?
The Taj Mahal's architect is credited variously to several named figures, with the documentary record thin and contested, while the thousands of craftsmen who…
Enduring · History · The arts
- Evidence
- Power
- Southeast Asia
Thirteen lives and competing expertise
The 2018 Tham Luang cave rescue forced a live arbitration between cave divers, military planners, medics and engineers whose recommendations conflicted, under…
Enduring · The human sciences
- Evidence
- Responsibility
- India
How do you count wild tigers?
India's tiger estimates moved from pugmark tracing to camera traps and stripe-pattern recognition, and the headline number rose partly because the method…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Certainty
- Africa
Truth commission, plural truths
South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission explicitly distinguished kinds of truth, factual, personal, social, restorative, and accepted survivor…
Enduring · History
- Evidence
- Interpretation
- East Asia
A malaria cure found in a fourth-century text
Screening traditional remedies, Tu Youyou found a fourth-century Chinese text describing cold extraction of sweet wormwood, adjusted her method accordingly,…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Culture
- India
The turmeric patent and the grandmother's proof
In 1995 a US patent was granted for using turmeric to heal wounds, a practice Indian households had relied on for generations. India's research council…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Power
- Southeast Asia
When the platform is the public square
In several Southeast Asian countries, a single social platform effectively is the internet for much of the population, and investigations after episodes of…
Enduring · The human sciences
- Evidence
- Responsibility
- East Asia
The instrument that felt distant earthquakes
Zhang Heng's second-century seismoscope reportedly indicated an earthquake in a distant province before messengers arrived to confirm it, using a mechanism…
Enduring · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Explanation
- India
Ayurveda meets the randomised trial
India funds research ministries for both biomedicine and traditional systems like Ayurveda, and disputes recur over whether centuries of documented clinical…
Current · The human sciences · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Culture
- Oceania
Fire knowledge, re-admitted
After Australia's catastrophic 2019 to 2020 bushfires, agencies expanded engagement with Aboriginal cultural burning, low-intensity fire practices refined over…
Current · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Culture
- India
Whose air quality number is right?
On a smoggy Delhi morning, official monitors, embassy sensors and cheap home devices can disagree by wide margins, and the choice of averaging window changes…
Current · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Objectivity
- The Middle East and North Africa
Measuring heat where people must work
Gulf states ban outdoor work during set summer hours, defined by clock and calendar rather than by measured heat stress on given sites, while researchers argue…
Current · The human sciences · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Responsibility
- Global
Manufacturing consensus, in the good sense
IPCC reports pass through nested drafting, expert review and line-by-line governmental approval of summaries, producing calibrated language about confidence…
Current · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Objectivity
- Global
Origins, evidence and access
Investigations into COVID-19's origins produced assessments hedged at low confidence and split between agencies, with early data incomplete and access to sites…
Current · The natural sciences
- Evidence
- Certainty